Cambridge Exams & other English test preparations
Concerning test preparations, Bachman (1990, p.114) argues that there may be variation in test-takers preparing for a specific test. Henceforth, the study draws from this hypothesis in the exploration of how candidates in the Spanish context prepare for the Cambridge test and the challenges encountered during the process of test-taking preparation. The study considers two types of test preparations namely, test-taking strategies and developing language proficiency (Chapell et al (2019, p.8).
Test-taking strategies
Test-taking strategies could be understood as the familiarisation of learners with the test, for instance, the test format, general idea of the test tasks and content as well as what test-takers are expected to do in each task. Test-taking preparations, therefore, would imply helping learners acquire self-management skills appropriate for a particular test (Chapel et al, 2019, p.10).
Additionally, Fulcher (2010, p.288), Bachman (1990, p.114) and Chapel et al (2019, p.10) relate test-taking preparation to test wiseness, which is the ability to apply appropriate and effective test-taking strategies that relate directly to the test format. Fulcher (2010, p.288), for instance, refers to test wiseness as the technique aimed at enabling learners to handle each test item adequately. However, he makes a distinction between the familiarisation of learners with test items and the test-taking strategies which reduces the chance of the scores being affected by the learners' unfamiliarity with any aspect of the test.
Apparently, drawing from Fulcher (2010, p.288) and Chapel et al (2019, p.10), the necessity of test wiseness as part of test preparations seems debatable due to its construct irrelevancy. In addition to the test wiseness and test-taking technique, Fulcher (2010, p.288) seemingly, favours the test preparation that is much closer to teaching rather than the kinds of activities normally associated with improving the learner's ability on the construct in question. Nevertheless, this type of test preparation could be considered more of teaching for exams than test preparation. Furthermore, this would be best applicable to learners wishing to take a test-preparation course to develop language proficiency. Under such preparation, the application of washback could be considered whereby a teacher decides what to teach based on the learner's needs in relation to the content of the test in question. The course may imply holistic preparation taking into account the content validity, criterion-related validity and construct validity which engulfs test wiseness and test-taking strategies (Bachman,1990, p.243).
Developing language proficiency
Developing language proficiency in test preparations implies three distinct language dimensions namely, social, professional and academic (Chapell et al (2019, p.8). Applied to the Reading and Use of English section in the Cambridge C1 Advanced test, a test taker would require an advanced level of grammar knowledge with a wide range of vocabulary. In such cases, grammar control is a requisite for dealing with parts 1 – 4 of the paper, which mostly test the lexical-grammatical awareness at the C1 level according to CEFR.
On the other hand, a wide range of vocabulary is particularly essential in parts 5 – 8, which deal with reading comprehension. The test tasks in these parts will be discussed in detail later under the section on constructs in Reading and Use of English. Test preparations for developing language proficiency ensure that a candidate is well equipped with the grammar content and vocabulary necessary for handling the tasks in the Reading and Use of English paper (Kenny & Newbrook, 2014, p.8).
Test preparation practices currently in use
Test preparation methodologies
Apparently, there are conflicting arguments regarding whether test preparations help to improve test scores or not (Fulcher, 2010, p.292). Nevertheless, test preparations could lead to different results depending on whether the course focuses on test-taking strategies or developing language proficiency. The type of test preparation courses could as well vary depending on the learner’s choice which could probably be dictated by the time availability, resources available, monetary factor as well as the surrounding environment in general. Moreover, the course duration could in most cases determine the type of course and its content (Chapel et al, 2019, p.10). For example, we can talk of short courses, semi-intensive courses or intensive courses.
Though the study lacks supporting data, in Spain there are different methodologies for Cambridge test preparations ranging from formal to informal courses. Nonetheless, several factors determine the choice of courses for a particular candidate. Moreover, learners preparing for the Cambridge test vary from school and university students to adult professionals with a significant number of students preparing for the test in their respective schools or university language centres. Likewise, there is a rising number of in-company English courses where some companies offer their employees an opportunity to take an English course and prepare for the certification as well. This could be argued on the basis that most companies are turning into multinational corporations hence the need for the English language as a means for communication among international professionals or business correspondence that requires English as a lingua franca.
Furthermore, a considerable number of learners enrol for English courses at language schools or hire private tutors to prepare for the Cambridge test while others opt for self-directed test preparation (Chapel et al, 2019, p.10). The course delivery methodologies may vary from in-person/on-site to online courses or a combination of both, with the classes ranging from one-to-one to group classes.
The cost of test-taking preparations
Different methodologies may pose distinct challenges to various learners. Some of the common challenges may include time scarcity and inadequate resources, both material and human, especially monetary factors and professionalism among tutors. Chapel et al, (2019, p.10) refer to factors such as work-related factors, family or relationship factors, lack of motivations or any other related mitigating circumstances that could hinder adequate test preparation.
Implications of the Cambridge test preparation practices
Borrowing from Hamp-Lyons (1998, p.330-331), it is argued that the main objective of test preparation is to guarantee good test scores, and that could be one of the reasons why candidates seek such preparatory courses. Similarly, good test scores are believed to help candidates achieve their test-taking goals. In cases where test preparation fails to guarantee good results, then there would be a need to investigate the possible causes.
C1 Advanced Handbook, (2019, p.9) recommends some of the preparation practices such as encouraging learners to develop extensive reading that would help them widen their vocabulary and familiarise themselves with different ranges of lexical and grammatical structures necessary for the handling of the Reading and Use of English paper. Another recommended test preparation practice, though debatable, is the use of sample papers as this would help in familiarising with the test format and knowing what kind of test items to expect in each part. Additionally, the use of sample papers would help candidates develop appropriate timing which is considered one of the challenges in test taking. Learners can identify which parts take longer to complete so as to start with the least-time consuming parts and finish with the most time-consuming items. Other test-taking techniques could be developed such as skimming and scanning.
Apart from test-taking strategies, grammatical accuracy is needed especially in handling parts one, two and four as well as knowledge on affixation needed for part four. This calls for a need to develop language proficiency as part of the preparation, which is equally considered helpful to the candidates in discovering the areas of grammar content to be improved.
Ethicality in test-taking preparation
Bachman (1990, p.160) does not enter into details on test preparation but Fulcher (2010, p.288-292) gives a clear elaboration on what test preparation entails as well as clarifying the issue of ethicality in the test preparation industry. Additionally, Fulcher (2010, p.288) cautions against unethical practices that would undermine the validity of the test-scores interpretations, for instance, the test preparation that focuses on teaching tests to the extent of real language teaching (Hall, 2018, p.1). Shohamy (1997, p.340), on the other hand, points out the need for ethicality in language testing owing to the consideration of the tests as powerful devices acting as indicators for determining the future of individuals.
However, Fulcher (2010, p.291-292) recommends test preparation that is much closer to teaching rather than activities normally associated with construct-irrelevant test preparation. It seems that Fulcher (2010, p.292)'s test preparation methodology which is drawn from Alderson & Wall (1993, p.115)'s notion of washback is worth consideration as it implies the teaching of language using the most appropriate methodologies and materials. Apparently, it helps learners achieve language competency and the ability to function in the target domains and context.
To avoid unethical test practices, consultation of the test materials and test items should only be reserved for the sake of familiarisation with the test. The argument is supported by both Fulcher (2010, p.289) and Hamp-Lyons (1998, p.332) who claim that, in addition to providing test-taking strategies, the practice tests and sample test papers should help learners in the diagnosis of problematic areas where they may need more help or further preparation.
Hamp-Lyons (1998, p.335) calls for reconsideration on the choice of materials and resources used in test preparation, whether for independent-self preparation by the learners or teacher-guided preparation. Seemingly, Fulcher (2010, p.289) shares similar ideas with Hamp-Lyons (1998, p.335) who argues that teachers preparing learners for test taking may encounter some ethical dilemmas concerning the use of appropriate materials. Ethically, I would say that it seems unclear to what extent the use of practice test and sample test papers could compromise the test scores in Cambridge tests. Given the nature of the tests, the effect may be considered insignificant and that could be the reason why such practice is commonly in use by language teachers, an issue that calls for further clarification as far as the ethical consideration is concerned.
Furthermore, Hamp-Lyons (1998, p.335) raises concern about test-mimicking exercises and the lack of guidance from the test preparation industry on good conduct in test preparation as well as the selection of ethical and appropriate test preparation materials. Other areas of concern would be to what extent, if any, are the teachers to blame when test-takers fail to pass the test. Similarly, the qualification and preparation of the teachers involved in the Cambridge test-taking preparation courses should also be of great concern.
P.S.
The above article is a section from the Master’s dissertation under the topic, Language Testing & Assessment. The reference cited in the text has intentionally been omitted.
By James Nyaga Njeru,
A Linguist and teacher of languages
